Browsing by Author "Bett, B."

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Animal-level risk factors for Trypanosoma evansi Infection in camels in Eastern and Central parts of Kenya
(2002) Ngaira, J.M. ; Bett, B.; Karanja, S.M.; Kenya Trypanosomiasis Research Institute; Kenya Trypanosomiasis Research Institute, P.O. Box 362, Kikuyu
Point prevalence and animal-level risk factors for Trypanosoma evansi Infection were investigated in a cross-sectional study that involved 2 227 camels from eastern and central parts of Kenya. The screening tests used were haematocrit centrifugation technique (HCT), mouse inoculation and latex agglutination (Suratex®). All camels were screened with HCT, while 396 and 961 of them were, in Addition, screened with mouse inoculation and SurateX tests, respectively. Parasitological and Suratex® test results were used in parallel to determine the number of camels exposed to T. evansi infections. Statistical analyses were conducted using Statistical Analysis Systems. Parasitological and Suratex® test results in parallel were dependent variables in multivariable logistic regression models that determined risk factors for T. evansi infection. Herd-level clustering was corrected with general estimation equations. The prevalence were 2.3 % and 19.6 %, using parasitological and Suratex tests, respectively, and 21.7 % when both tests were used in parallel. There was a Positive association between the screening tests (McNemar's test = 104.8, P = 0.001) although the strength of association was low (Kappa = 0.2; 95 % CI: 0.1- 0.3). Before accounting for herd-level clustering, dry season (OR = 1.5; 95 % CI: 1.0, 2.1) and nomadic pastoralism (OR = 1.8; 95 % CI: 1.1, 3.2) were associated with increased odds of a camel being exposed to T. evansi infection compared to wet season and ranching, respectively. Following this correction, only nomadic pastoralism was significantly associated (OR = 3.1; 95 % CI = 1.0, 14.4) with T. evansi infection compared to ranching. It is concluded that camels managed under nomadic pastoralism had higher risk of being exposed to T. evansi infections than camels from ranching systems of management.
Clinical and pathological characterizati~ of Blood stream forms and cerebrospinal fluid T. b. rhodesiense trypailosomes iSolated from a patient using rabbits.
(2009) Ndungu, K.; Kagira, J.M.; Ouma J.M.; Bett, B.; Gitonga, P.; KARI -Trypanosomiasis Research Centre, P.O. Box 362, Kikuyu, Kenya
Clinical and pathological characterisation of blood stream (BSF) and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) forms of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense trypanosome isolated from a sleeping sickness patient were investigated in rabbits. The study aimed at investigating whether there is any significant difference in clinical and pathological presentation in rabbits infected by the two forms of trypanosomes. Each form of parasite was inoculated into five rabbits at 104 trypanosomes/rnl while five rabbits were used as un-infected controls. Parasitaemia development, body temperature, packed cell volume (PCV), body weight, food and water intake, heartbeat and respiration were monitored daily for 30 days post infection when the experiment was terminated. Pathological changes were evaluated following euthanasia. All the infected rabbits became parasitaemic 6 days post infection (dpi) and the parasitaemia levels were significantly higher (p=O.Ol) for the BSF than the CSF infected rabbits. No significant difference was observed in heartbeat, respiration, food and water intake as well as PCv. However, CSF infected rabbits had a significantly (p=O.Ol) higher body temperature and weights than BSF infected rabbits. There was no major difference in the clinical manifestation of the disease caused by the two forms of parasite. However, temporary paralysis was observed around the left side of the neck in one rabbit infected with CSF trypanosomes whereas mucoid stool with the presence of amoeba cysts were observed in the rabbits infected with the BSF trypanosomes. The spleen weights of CSF infected rabbits was heavier (3.59 ± 1.13 grams) than the BSF infected rabbits (2.92± 0.78 grams). The proportions of monocytes were significantly higher (p
Cow Pea Production Training and Extension Manual
(Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, 2016-08) Too, A.; Esilaba, A.O.; Bett, B.; Gathambiri, C.; Githunguri, C.; Nyongesa, D.; Nassiuma, E.; Odoyo, E.; Wanjekeche, E.; Wamaitha, J.; Miriti, J.; Wasilwa, L.; Waithaka, M.; Otipa, M.; Likhayo, P.; Kuruma, R.W.; Amata, R.; Ochieng, V.; Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization
Cowpea Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) is believed to have originated in Africa where a large genetic diversity of wild types occur throughout the continent, particularly southern Africa, however the greatest genetic diversity of cultivated cowpea is found in West Africa. In Kenya, cowpea is an important source of proteins consumed in many households. It is consumed in the form of whole dried seeds or leaves. Cowpea is grown as a green leafy vegetable mainly in Western Kenya and for grain mainly in the dry lands of Eastern, Coast and Nyanza regions. Cowpea grown as a vegetable requires rich soils and high rainfall. In contrast, cowpea grown for grain requires low rainfall and high temperature. 85% of total area under cowpea production in the eastern region of Kenya, is under intercropping systems with maize and or cassava. Cowpea rank second to beans in importance as vegetable protein food crops. The production is mainly at subsistence level by small-holder farmers with low input. The crop is mainly grown by smallholder farmers. However, pests and diseases are major constraints in cowpea production in Kenya. Accuracy in pest and disease identification are important for proper management making it necessary to build the capacity of extension officers and small holder farmers in pest and disease management in orderto minimize losses.
Estimation of tsetse challenge and its relationship with trypanosomosis incidence in cattle kept under pastoral production systems in Kenya
( 2nd May ,2008) Bett, B.; Irungu, P.; Nyamwra, S.O.; Murilla, G.; Kitala, P.; Gathuma, J.; Randolph, T.F.; McDermott, J.; Trypanosomiasis Research Centre, Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, P.O. Box 362-00902, Kikuyu, Kenya, International Livestock Research Institute, P.O. Box 30709-00100, Nairobi, Kenya, Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053-00625, Kangemi, Nairobi, Kenya, Department of Public Health Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053-00625, Nairobi, Kenya
In an on-farm trial conducted amongst the Maasai pastoralists in Nkuruman and Nkineji areas of Kenya between April 2004 and August 2005 designed to evaluate the effectiveness of a synthetic tsetse repellent technology, we assessed the relationship between tsetse challenge and trypanosomosis incidence in cattle. Six villages were used in each area. Each of these villages had a sentinel cattle herd that was screened for trypanosomosis on monthly basis using buffy coat technique. Animals found infected at each sampling were treated with diminazene aceturate at 7 mg kg - I body weight. Treatments administered by the owners over the sampling intervals were recorded as well. Tsetse flies were trapped at the time of sampling using baited stationary traps and apparent tsetse density estimated as flies per trap per day (FrD). A fixed proportion (10%) of the flies was dissected and their infection status determined through microscopy. Blood meals were also collected from some of the flies and their sources identified using enzymelinked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Tsetse challenge was obtained as a product of tsetse density, trypanosome prevalence and the proportion of blood meals obtained from cattle. This variable was transformed using logarithmic function and fitted as an independent factor in a Poisson model that had trypanosomosis incidence in the sentinel cattle as the outcome of interest. The mean trypanosomosis incidence in the sentinel group of cattle was 7.2 and 10.2% in Nkuruman and Nkineji, respectively. Glossina pallidipes was the most prevalent tsetse species in Nkuruman while G. swynnertoni was prevalent in Nkineji. The proportions of tsetse that had mature infections in the respective areas were 0.6 and 4.2%. Most tsetse (28%) sampled in Nkuruman had blood meals from warthogs while most of those sampled in Nkineji (30%) had blood meals from cattle. A statistically significant association between tsetse challenge and trypanosomosis incidence was obtained only in Nkuruman when data was pooled and analyzed at the area but not at the village-level. In the later scenario, lagging tsetse challenge by I month improved the strength but not the significance of the association. These findings show that when the spatial unit of analysis in observational studies or on-farm trials is small, for instance a village, it may not be possible to demonstrate a statistically significant association between tsetse challenge and trypanosomosis incidence in livestock so as to effectively control for tsetse challenge.
Evaluation of Antigen and Antibody Rapid Detection Tests for Trypanosoma Evansi Infection in Camels in Kenya
(2003) Ngaira, J.M.; Bett, B.; Karanja, S.M.; Njagi, E.N.M.; Kenya Trypanosomiasis Research Institute; Lavington, Code 00603, P.O. Box 25530, Code 00603, Nairobi, Kenya, Kenya Trypanosomiasis Research Institute, P.O. Box 362, Kikuyu, Kenya, Department of Biochemistry, Kenyatta University, P.O. Box 43844, Nairobi, Kenya
The card agglutination test for Trypanosoma evansi (CATTIT. evansi) for the detection of antibodies, and Suratex® for the detection of circulating antigens were compared in a cross-sectional study involving camels in eastern and central parts of Kenya. Of the 2227 camels screened, 2038 were owned by nomadic pastoralists in T. evansi endemic areas in eastern Kenya. A herd of 86 camels were from a ranch in Mugwoni. In Athi River area, 35 camels belonged to Kenya Trypanosomiasis Research Institute, and 68 were slaughter animals. Diagnostic sensitivity estimates were obtained by testing sera from 51 camels that had been found to be parasitologically positive by the haematocrit centrifugation technique, buffy-coat technique and mouse inoculation. Diagnostic specificity was estimated by testing sera from 35 camels known to be trypanosome-free. Positive and negative predictive values (NPVs) were calculated using a range of prevalence values. The sensitivity of CATT/T. evansi (68.6%) was higher than that of Suratex® (58.8%), but not significantly. Both tests had equally high specificity (100%). The overall prevalence was 2.3% (51 out of 2227) by parasite detection, 32.2% (327 out of 1017) by CATT/T. evansi and 19.6% (188 out of 961) by Suratex®. Overall, there was a positive association between CATT/T. evansi and Suratex® though the strength of association was low (McNemar's test = 46.12, P = 0.001; kappa = 0.26, CI: 0.20-0.33). Parasite prevalence ranged from 0% in several herds to 27.8% in a herd in Isiolo. Prevalence was highest in Isiolo with 2.5% (51 out of 2030) by parasitological detection, 38.8% (321 out of 828) by CATT/T. evansi and 21.9% (169 outof772) by Suratex®. In Mugwoni prevalence was 7 and 18% by CATT/T. evansi and Suratex®, respectively, and no parasites were detected. In Athi River Suratex® detected 2.9% (3 out of 103) positive while CATT/T. Evansi and parasitological methods gave negative results. At prevalence values between 10 and 100%, CATT/T. Evansi as well as Suratex® had infinitely high positive predictive values, whereas Suratex® had a lower NPV than CATT/T. Evansi.
Factors influencing the prevalence of trypanosomosis in Orma Boran (trypanotolerant) and Teso zebu (trypanosusceptible) cattle crosses in Teso District, western Kenya
(2009) Gachohi, J.M.; Bett, B.; Murilla, G.A.; Kenya Trypanosomiasis Research Institute; Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Trypanosomiasis Research Centre (KARI-TRC), International Research Institute
The objective of this study was to determine factors associated with occurrence of trypanosomosis in the first generation (F1) crossbreds between trypanotolerant Orma Boran and trypanosusceptible Teso zebu cattle in a trypanosomosis endemic area in Teso District, western Kenya. The offspring were screened for trypanosomosis and other haemoparasites using parasitological methods. Packed cell volume (PCV), body weights and tsetse density (FTD) were also determined. Factors considered in the analysis included sex, age, body weight and season of the year. Generalized linear mixed models (GLMM) were used for multivariable analysis to account for clustering of observations at the animal level and estimate outcome variance parameters.
Factors influencing the prevalence of trypanosomosis in Orma Boran (trypanotolerant) and Teso zebu (trypanosusceptible) cattle crosses in Teso District, western Kenya
(2009) Gachohi, J.M.; Bett, B.; Murilla, G.A.; Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Trypanosomiasis Research Center (KARI-TRC), International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)
The objective of this study was to determine factors associated with occurrence of try panosomos is in the first generation (F 1) crossbreds between trypanotolerant Orma Boran and trypanosusceptible Teso zebu cattle in a trypanosomosis endemic area in Teso District, western Kenya. The offspring were screened for trypanosomosis and other haemoparasites using parasitological methods. Packed cell volume (PCY), body weights and tsetse density (FTD) were also determined. Factors considered in the analysis included sex, age, body weight and season of the year. Generalized linear mixed models (GLMM) were used for multivariable analysis to account for clustering of observations at the animal level and estimate outcome variance parameters.
Global Crop Impacts, Yield Losses, and Action Thresholds for Fall Armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda)
(Elsevier Ltd., 2021) Overton, K.; Maino, J. L.; Day, R.; Umina, P. A.,; Bett, B.; Carnovale, D.; Ekesi, S.; Meagher, R.; Reynolds, O. L.; Cesar Australia 293 Royal Parade ; CABI ; , The University of Melbourn ; Plant Health Australia ; International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology ; Insect Behavior and Biocontrol Unit USDA-ARS CMAVE ; Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation
The fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is a highly polyphagous plant pest that can severely impact yields of several agricultural crops. Understanding the economic impact and management thresholds for FAW across a variety of crop commodities is crucial for effective management. Evaluating the peer-reviewed and grey literature, we compiled global data on: (1) yield losses reported as a result of FAW infestations, (2) the relationship between FAW pressure/density and reported yield loss, and (3) current known economic injury levels, economic thresholds and action thresholds. We identified 71 references that reported yield losses from FAW infestation, with a total of 888 separate yield loss entries. The majority of research quantifying yield losses and the relationship between pest pressure and yield has focused on maize, sorghum, and cotton, with some evidence for sweet corn, bermudagrass, and rice. Yield loss varied between management strategies, with genetically modified and/or insecticide treated crops typically retaining higher yields. Most studies investigating the relationship between FAW density and yield loss across different crops have focused on early and mid FAW larval instars and on vegetative through to reproductive plant growth stages, with minimal research on both late larval instars and on plant seedlings. Economic thresholds were not reported in the literature. The reporting of economic injury levels and action thresholds varied significantly both between and within crops, highlighting the need for a standardised approach when measuring FAW pressures or densities that elicit management responses.
Green Grams Production Training and Extension Manual
(Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, 2016-08) Too, A.; Esilaba, A.; Rono, B.; Bett, B.; Gathambiri, C.; Githunguri, C.; Nyongesa, D.; Macharia, D.; Nassiuma, E.; Odoyo, E.; Wayua, F.; Kamau, G.; Mwathi, J.M.; Miriti, J.; Wasilwa, L.; Wanyama, M.; Waithaka, M.; Otipa, M.; Likhayo, P.; Amata, R.; Ochieng, V.
Green grams also known as mung bean, is an erect annual plant which grows to a height of 60-70 cm tall are the more commonly grown in Kenya as compared to black grams. They are common in central and south Nyanza areas, in Machakos and Kitui Counties and at the coast. The two main varieties for the Kenyan market are N26 and KS20 and are differentiated by the colour of seeds. Yellow green grams have bright green seeds while the local green gram seed is small and ripens unevenly. An improved variety (K26) has larger seeds and tends to ripen uniformly, see Table 1. The common names used to refer to green grams are Ndengu or Pojo Ngina. Green grams produces pale yellow flowers borne in clusters of 12–15 near the top of the plant. The flowers develop into cylindrical pods with cylindrical seeds. Pods measure 7.5 cm to 10 cm long and contain 10 to 15 seeds each. Each plant typically produces 30 to 40 pods which turn darker in colour as they mature. The seed colour is in varying shades of yellow to green and black with green and yellow grams being the more common ones in Kenya. The crop is mainly produced by smallholder farmers. However, pests and diseases are major constraints in green grams production in Kenya. Accuracy in pest identification and disease diagnostics are important for proper management of these challenges. It is therefore necessary to build the capacity of extension officers and growers in pest and disease management in order to minimize losses.
KALRO-KCEP - CRAL Common Dry Beans Extension Manual
(Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization., 2016-04) Macharia, D.; Waithaka, M.; Esilaba, A.O.; Nyongesa, D.; Okoti, M.; Githunguri, C.; Miriti, J.; Otipa, M.; Too, A.; Bett, B.; Gathambiri, C.; Amata, R.; Nassiuma, E.; Odoyo, E.; Wayua, F.; Karanja, J.K.; Mwathi, J.W.; Likhayo, P.; Ooro, P.A.; Ochieng, V.; Wasilwa, L.; Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization
Pulses, or grain legumes in general, are an essential source of supplementary protein to daily diets based on cereals and starchy for a predominantly vegetarian population and those who cannot afford expensive animal protein. Pulses are therefore often regarded as poor man’s meat”. They also provide energy, protein, essential minerals, vitamins and several compounds considered beneficial for good health. Their cultivation enriches soil by adding nitrogen, and improves the physical, chemical and biological soil properties. They are also well suited to diverse environments and fit in various cropping systems owing to their wide adaptability, low input requirements, fast growth, nitrogen fixing and weed smothering ability. Their short growing period and photoperiod sensitivity make them suitable for crop intensification and diversification. Notwithstanding their high production potential, their productivity is generally low as these are cultivated on poor lands, with no or little inputs, and are susceptible to several abiotic and biotic stresses.
KCEP - CRAL Green Grams Extension Manual
(Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, 2019-04) Macharia, D.; Waithaka, M.; Otipa, M.; Nassiuma, E.; Esilaba, A.O.; Nyongesa, D.; Okoti, M.; Githunguri, C.; Miriti, J.; Too, A.; Bett, B.; Gathambiri, C.; Amata, R.; Odoyo, E.; Wayua, F.; Karanja, J.K.; Mwathi, J.W.; Likhayo, P.; Ooro, P.A.; Kamau, G.M.; Ochieng, V.; Wasilwa, L.; Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization
Pulses, or grain legumes in general, are an essential source of supplementary protein. They also provide energy, protein, essential minerals, vitamins and several compounds considered beneficial for good health. Their cultivation enriches soil by adding nitrogen, and improves the physical, chemical and biological soil properties. They are also well suited to diverse environments and fit in various cropping systems owing to their wide adaptability, low input requirements, fast growth, nitrogen fixing and weed smothering ability. Their short growing period and photoperiod sensitivity make them suitable for crop intensification and diversification. Not withstanding their high production potential, their productivity is generally low as these are cultivated on poor lands, with no or little inputs, and are susceptible to several abiotic and biotic stresses.Green gram (Vigna radiata L.) also known as Mung bean and in Kiswahili Ndengu is one of the potential food and cash crop pulses that have been observed to perform well in the arid regions of Kenya. The crop is commonly grown in central, south Nyanza, eastern and coastal regions. Its edible grain is characterized by good digestibility, flavor, high and easily digestible protein content and absence of any flatulence effects (Ahmed et al., 2001). Its seed contains contain approximately 374Kcal, 23.9% protein, 1.2% fat, 16.3% dietary fiber, 4.5-5.5% ash, 63% carbohydrates on dry weight basis. It’s also a crucial source of vitamins A and B complex and generous amounts of micro-nutrients such as iron and zinc which are deficient in diets among the poor, particularly pregnant women and children in Africa (Swaminathan et. al., 2012).
Regional and Seasonal Activity Predictions for Fall Armyworm in Australia
(Elsevier B.V., 2021) Maino, J. L.; Schouten, R.; Overton, K.; Day, R.; Ekesi, S.; Bett, B.; Barton, M.; Gregg, P.C.; Umina, P.A.; Reynolds, O. L.; Cesar Australia ; CABI ; International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology ; Plant Health Australia ; University of New England ; The University of Melbourne ; Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation
Since 2016, the fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda, has undergone a significant range expansion from its native range in the Americas, to continental Africa, Asia, and in February 2020, mainland Australia. The large dispersal potential of FAW adults, wide host range of immature feeding stages, and unique environmental con-ditions in its invasive range creates large uncertainties in the expected impact on Australian plant production industries. Here, using a spatial model of population growth and spread potential informed by existing biolog-ical and climatic data, we simulate seasonal population activity potential of FAW, with a focus on Australia’s grain production regions. Our results show that, in Australia, the large spread potential of FAW will allow it to exploit temporarily favourable conditions for population growth across highly variable climatic conditions. It is estimated that FAW populations would be present in a wide range of grain growing regions at certain times of year, but importantly, the expected seasonal activity will vary markedly between regions and years depending on climatic conditions. The window of activity for FAW will be longer for growing regions further north, with some regions possessing conditions conducive to year-round population survival. Seasonal migrations from this permanent range into southern regions, where large areas of annual grain crops are grown annually, are predicted to commence from October, i.e. spring, with populations subsequently building up into summer. The early stage of the FAW incursion into Australia means our predictions of seasonal activity potential will need to be refined as more Australian-specific information is accumulated. This study has contributed to our early understanding of FAW movement and population dynamics in Australia. Importantly, the models established here provide a useful framework that will be available to other countries should FAW invade in the future. To increase the robustness of our model, field sampling to identify conditions under which population growth occurs, and the location of source populations for migration events is required. This will enable accurate forecasting and early warning to farmers, which should improve pest monitoring and control programs of FAW.
Sexual and Gender Minorities in Agricultural Research: The Hidden Mirror
(INDERSCIENCE Online, 2021) Bett, B.; Alver, J.; O’Keefe, G.; Global Program, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research ; University of Canberra ; Outreach and Capacity Building, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research
This paper highlights the invisibility of sexual and gender minorities (SGMs) within agricultural research. Through a review of the literature, the authors posit that the majority of gender in agriculture research focuses on binary gender identities, with little space for gender diverse expressions or sexuality outside heteronormative frameworks of the 'family'. Through these (binary) narratives, researchers work to identify power imbalances between women and men, with a view to 'empowerment', and more recently, developing understandings of 'masculinity'. Looking outside agriculture, gender researchers are beginning to investigate diverse sexual orientations and gender identities. Contemporary research is finding through investigation of power and access within societies that SGM groups often have less access to resources, and voice, with development and research interventions almost always overlooking their diverse roles in society and specific needs. Given the pivotal role of gender research in agriculture uncovering inequalities in power and access between men and women, and the resultant impacts on food security, nutrition and production, this framework should be extended to include vulnerable groups such as SGM. The paper presents an opportunity to discuss the integration of SGM in agricultural research, to broaden our theoretical and methodological approaches.
Spatial risk assessment of Rift Valley Fever potential outbreaks using a vector surveillance system in Kenya
(2014) Nanyingi, M.; Ogola, E.; Otiang, E.; Munyua, P.; Thumbi, S.; Bett, B.; Muchemi, G.; Kiama, S.; Njenga, K.
Rift Valley Fever(RVF)is a vector-borne, Viral, Zoonotic disease tha threatens human and animal health.In Kenya the geographical distribution is determined by spread of competent eco-climatic parameters in emergence of disease.
Trypanosomosis and Helminthosis in Camels: Comparison of Ranch and Traditional Camel Management Systems in Kenya
(2002) Njiru, Z.K.; Bett, B.; Ole-Mapeny, I.M.; Githiori, J.B.; Ndungu, J.M.; Kenya Trypanosomiasis Research Institute; Kenya Traypanosomiasis Research Institute (KETRI), P.O.Box 362, Kikuyu, Kenya
Two camel rearing systems were compared, using trypanosomiasis and helminthosis prevalence as indicators of disease constraint. Biting flies were trapped to assess their role in transmission of trypanosomiasis. Data was collected during the wet and dry seasons. The prevalences of trypanosomiasis were 17.65 and 8.5% in ranch and traditional systems, respectively, and varied with age, sex and season. On average, single helminthic infection (67.3%) was higher than mixed infection (32.7%) in both systems, while Trichostrongylus spp. were the most prevalent. The mean egg count per gram of faeces (epg) was 220±78.20 and 1750±102.67 in ranch and traditional systems, respectively. The ranch camels required more veterinary attention than the traditionally grazed ones. The biting flies caught consisted of Haematobia minuta (94.8%), Tabanus taeniola (4%) and Hippobosca camelina and H. variegata (1.2%). Most flies were caught during the wet season and around the camel sheds. From this study, it appears that camels kept under ranch management have a higher disease burden than those kept in a traditional system.

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