Socio-Economics
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Item Exploring Inclusiveness of Vulnerable and Marginalized People in the Cassava Value Chain in the Lake Region, Kenya(Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development in the Tropics and Subtropics, 2023) Omondi, S.W.; Tana, P.; Lutomia, C.; Makini, F.; Wasilwa, L.; Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization ; Seed Systems GroupVulnerable and marginalised groups (VMGs) who comprise widows, orphans, people living with disability and HIV, have not been given sufficient attention in agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) by policy makers, development partners, research, and extension, yet they comprise nearly one-quarter of all smallholder farmers. This study explored inclusion of VMGs in cassava value chain in the Lake Region of Kenya. Formal survey, focus group discussions (FGD), and key informant interviews (KIIs) were used to collect data from VMGs, common interest groups (CIGs) and stakeholders in the cassava value chain. The results showed that the majority of VMG farmers were women, mainly widows, orphans, people living with HIV, and difficulty in mobility. Compared to CIGs, there were significant differences (p < 0.05) in access to value chain support services. Key barriers reinforcing marginalization were policy, socio economic and technological in nature. It is argued that affirmative action that aims to reach the marginalised farmers and actors in cassava value chain should entail national and institutional policy frameworks to enhance visibil-ity and involvement of VMGs in technology development and innovation as well as in the design and implementation of projects geared towards improving livelihoods of smallholder farmers. The findings of this study suggest the need for mapping and assessing VMGs for targeted value chain institutional support to access inputs, training, financing and market linkages in order to close gaps in cassava production and marketing. It is concluded that the cassava value chain in the Lake Region is less inclusive for VMGs. Thus, the study recommends affirmative action and establishment of a platform for VMG farmers to increase their voice in decision making.Item Smallholders’ Adaptation to Climate Change in Western Kenya: Considering Socioeconomic, Institutional, and Biophysical Determinants(Elsevier B.V., 2022) Musafiri, C.M.; Kiboi, M.; Macharia, J.; Ng’etich, O.K.; Kosgei, D.K.; Mulianga, B.; Okoti, M.; Ngetich, F.K.; University of Embu ; Cortile Scientific Company Ltd ; Kenyatta University ; Moi University ; Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) ;Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University of Science and Technology (JOOUST); University of Embu; Cortile Scientific Company Ltd; Kenyatta University; Moi University; Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO); Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University of Science and Technology (JOOUST)Climate change has stimulated detrimental threats to the global agricultural ecosystems. The study investigated i) the climate change perceptions, drivers, effects, and barriers, and ii) determinants of climate change adaptation among smallholder farmers in Western Kenya. The study interviewed 300 households using a semi-structured face-to-face interview schedule. The study employed two indices, i.e., weighted average and problem confrontation, and two regression models, i.e., Binary logistic and Poisson regression. The findings indicated that smallholder farmers were aware of climate change, its drivers, and its effects. The main barriers to climate change adaptation were unpredictable weather patterns, financial constraints, and limited agricultural training. Group membership and site negatively influenced climate change adaptation. Household head's education, experience, remittance receipt, access to credit on inputs, climate change perception, access to weather information, and cultivated farm size positively influenced climate change adaptation. The findings underscore the importance of tailoring smallholder farmers' dynamics in climate change policies to enhance adaptation. The negative prediction of group membership needs to be emphasized to prevent demotivating farmers from joining community associations. The study highlights the need to incorporate farmers' perceptions of climate change, climate awareness creation, and monetary assistance to enhance climate change resilience among smallholder farmers.Item Farmers Demonstrate Rationality and Transitivity in Variety Choice: Empirical Evidence from Two Rice Growing Niches in Coastal Kenya(International Journal of Agriculture, 2022) Kengo, D.M.; Kimani, J.M.; Sang-Bok, L.; Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization ; Africa Rice Training CenterPurpose: A cross-sectional survey was designed to study farmers’ preference and choice framework for rice varieties in Kwale and Taita-Taveta counties of coastal lowland Kenya. Methodology: The survey used a multi-stage sampling technique; systematic selection for the study counties niches, a purposive sampling approach for the study population (rice growers only) and a systematic random sampling for the respondents on an nth occurrence. Data was collected with the aid of a semi-structured questionnaire and key informant interviews from key rice value chain actors; including farmers as producers as well as consumers and agricultural extension service providers (AESPs) and other stakeholders. A total of 137 individual respondents were interviewed using the semi-structured questionnaire while the key informant interviews engaged a total of 29 AESPs. Data analysis focused on exploring on the varieties that farmers grew and whether they had a criteria or pattern for choosing the varieties to grow and seed source. Findings: Results confirmed that the Kwale rice growing niche had a higher rice variety diversity (more than 12 varieties) while Taita-Taveta had only around seven (7) common varieties. Rice was more traditionally grown in Kwale with low acreage and low yields compared to Taita-Taveta. Common varieties grown were Pachanga, Supa, Kitumbo, Makonde and Kibawa in Kwale while in Taita-Taveta, Japan, Supa and Hybrid 6444 rice varieties were common (with prevalence rating of 44.8%, 25.4%, 22.4%, 20.9 and 17.9% in Kwale respectively and 55.7%, 54.3% and 18.6% in Taita-Taveta respectively). Varieties grown by farmers in Kwale had a long history of seed recycling and were characterized by low productivity (less than 6, 90-kg bags per acre) and subsistent in nature than in Taita-Taveta. The general picture for variety prevalence in both (Kwale and Taita) growing niches was that farmers mostly relied on traditional (own-preserved, farmer-to-farmer exchange or market) seed systems for the recycled rice varieties. Variety choice by farmers who are both producers and consumers demonstrated a rational and transitive behavior with land resource allocation. Contribution to theory, practice and policy: The study provided evidence of an urgent need for strategic interventions towards improving the production system through on-farm researcher-led demonstrations for superior rice varieties, agronomic practices as well as an input subsidy and sustainable market linkages. Formation of farmer producer groups and strategic facilitation of the groups with rice certified seed and mills are proposed as positive drivers to improving rice marketing and increased productivity.Item Farmers Demonstrate Rationality and Transitivity in Variety Choice: Empirical Evidence from Two Rice Growing Niches in Coastal Kenya(International Journal of Agriculture, 2021) Kengo, M.; Kimani, J.; Sang-Bok, L.Purpose: A cross-sectional survey was designed to study farmers’ preference and choice framework for rice varieties in Kwale and Taita-Taveta counties of coastal lowland Kenya. Methodology: The survey used a multi-stage sampling technique; systematic selection for the study counties/niches, a purposive sampling approach for the study population (rice growers only) and a systematic random sampling for the respondents on an nth occurrence. Data was collected with the aid of a semi-structured questionnaire and key informant interviews from key rice value chain actors; including farmers as producers as well as consumers and agricultural extension service providers (AESPs) and other stakeholders. A total of 137 individual respondents were interviewed using the semi-structured questionnaire while the key informant interviews engaged a total of 29 AESPs. Data analysis focused on exploring on the varieties that farmers grew and whether they had a criteria or pattern for choosing the varieties to grow and seed source. Findings: Results confirmed that the Kwale rice growing niche had a higher rice variety diversity (more than 12 varieties) while Taita-Taveta had only around seven (7) common varieties. Rice was more traditionally grown in Kwale with low acreage and low yields compared to Taita-Taveta. Common varieties grown were Pachanga, Supa, Kitumbo, Makonde and Kibawa in Kwale while in Taita-Taveta, Japan, Supa and Hybrid 6444 rice varieties were common (with prevalence rating of 44.8%, 25.4%, 22.4%, 20.9 and 17.9% in Kwale respectively and 55.7%, 54.3% and 18.6% in Taita-Taveta respectively). Varieties grown by farmers in Kwale had a long history of seed recycling and were characterized by low productivity (less than 6, 90- kg bags per acre) and subsistent in nature than in Taita-Taveta. The general picture for variety prevalence in both (Kwale and Taita) growing niches was that farmers mostly relied on traditional (own-preserved, farmer-to-farmer exchange or market) seed systems for the recycled rice varieties. Variety choice by farmers who are both producers and consumers demonstrated a rational and transitive behavior with land resource allocation. Contribution to theory, practice and policy: The study provided evidence of an urgent need for strategic interventions towards improving the production system through on-farm researcher-led demonstrations for superior rice varieties, agronomic practices as well as an input subsidy and sustainable market linkages. Formation of farmer producer groups and strategic facilitation of the groups with rice certified seed and mills are proposed as positive drivers to improving rice marketing and increased productivity.Item Feminization of African Agriculture and the Meaning of Decision-Making for Empowerment and Sustainability(MDPI, 2021-08-11) Haug, R.; Mwaseba, D.L.; Njarui, D.; Moeletsi, M.; Magalasi, M.; Mutimura, M.; Hundessa, F.; Aamodt, J.T.; Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU) ; Sokoine University of Agriculture ; Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) ; Soil, Climate and Water ; University of Limpopo ; University of Malawi ; Rwanda Agricultural Board (RAB) ; Haramaya UniversityThe purpose of this study was to assess women’s decision-making power in small-scale agriculture in six African countries in view of the feminization of agriculture and to discuss the meaning of decision-making in relation to women’s empowerment and sustainability. The data are drawn from a multisite and mixed-method agricultural research and development project in six sub-Saharan countries including two sites in each country. The five domains of empowerment outlined in the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index are used to structure the analysis. The results indicate that in the selected sites in Malawi, Rwanda and South Africa, women farmers tend to dominate agricultural decision-making, while the result is more mixed in the Kenyan sites, and decision-making tends to be dominated by men in the sites in Tanzania and Ethiopia. Despite women participating in agricultural decision-making, the qualitative results show that women small-scale farmers were not perceived to be empowered in any of the country sites. It appears that the feminization of agriculture leads to women playing a more important role in decision-making but also to more responsibilities and heavier workloads without necessarily resulting in improvements in well-being outcomes that would enhance sustainability.Item Accelerate Scaling up Forage Intensification Using Novel Digital Extension Approach in Kenya(UKnowedge, 2021) Njarui, D.M.G.; Gatheru, M.; Ndubi, J.M.; Murage, A.W.; Gichangi, A.W.; Gichangi, E.M.; Nogothu, U.S.; Kenya Agricultural & Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) ; The Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy ResearchWide scale adoption of diverse forages improves livestock productivity and farmers welfare. However, limited access to information and knowledge on forage production results in slow adoption in Kenya. There is need to enhance information and knowledge exchange among farming communities for efficient and effective adoption and decision-making. An inter-institutional pilot project was initiated in 2017 to scale-up forages in Kenya using a novel extension approach - the village knowledge centre (VKC). A VKC is an information and communication technology (ICT) digital platform-based linking farmers through smart phones and social media as a conduit for faster and effective information and knowledge. This paper shares the experiences of VKC intervention to scale up Urochloa grass technology among smallholder farmers for livestock productivity. Through the VKC support there has been increased access of information and knowledge on Urochloa grass management, conservation and livestock feeding. Approximately 702 farmers out of which 28% were women visited the VKC to seek information on Urochloa grass from May 2018 to May 2020. It has trained 22 lead farmers on the establishment and management of Urochloa grass. The VKC has created two WhatsApp groups for networking among farmers with over 330 members. Between September 2018 and May 2020, the groups shared 2550 messages on Urochloa management, conservation, and livestock feeding with other farmers in their communities. Additionally, the VKC has improved availability of Urochloa grass seeds to farmers. Over 530 farmers received the seeds through the VKC, while 500 made request though mobile phone Short Message Services (SMS) and were supplied using courier services. It was evident that VKC intervention has not only improved the adoption rate, but also led to increased forage productivity and higher income for farmers. There is a need to continue using tools such as the VKC in the dissemination of information on Urochloa grass and explore suitable funding for sustainability of the centre after the end of the project.Item Use of Inorganic Fertilizer on Climate-Smart Crops Improves Smallholder Farmers’ Livelihoods: Evidence from Western Kenya.(Elsevier Ltd., 2023) Musafiri, C.M.; Kiboi, M.; Macharia, J.; Ng’etich, O.K.; Okoti, M.; Mulianga, M.; Kosgei, D.K.; Zeila, A.; Ngetich, F.K.; Cortile Scientific ; , KCA University ; Kenyatta University ; , University of Embu ; Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) ; Moi University ; The World Bank ; Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University of Science and Technology (JOOUST)The main challenges facing smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are soil fertility decline and climate change, culminating in increased food insecurity. The double effect of climate change and soil fertility decline could be devastating among the poor rural smallholder farmers, who solely depend on rain-fed agriculture with little investment in adaptive mechanisms. Using inorganic fertilizers and careful selection of climate-resilient crops such as sorghum could improve the livelihoods of smallholder farmers through improved soil health and crop yields. However, information on the effects of inorganic fertilizer on sorghum production remains uncertain, especially in SSA. We evaluated the effects of inorganic fertilizers on sorghum yields among smallholder farmers in Western Kenya. We conducted a cross-sectional survey and collected data from 300 smallholder sorghum farmers. We employed a multi-stage sampling procedure to collect data from the specific smallholder farmers from the target population. We employed endogenous switching regression (ESR) modeling to control observed and unobserved bias in predicting the effects of inorganic fertilizer use on productivity. Smallholder farmers applied a limited amount of inorganic fertilizer. We established that hired labor, agricultural training, and farmers' perception of soil erosion were significant positive determinants of inorganic fertilizer use. Location and access to weather forecast information were key negative determinants of inorganic fertilizer use. The use of inorganic fertilizer increased crop yields by 14%. The findings suggested that inorganic amendments could promote food security and improve purchasing power, thus enhancing smallholder farmers' capacity to cope with declining soil fertility and climate change-related challenges. Therefore, agricultural policies targeting improved productivity of smallholder sorghum farmers could enhance inorganic fertilizer use while considering the determinants.Item Women’s Empowerment and Intra-Household Gender Dynamics and Practices Around Sheep and Goat Production in South East Kenya(PLoS ONE, 2022-08-04) Ogolla, K.O.; Chemuliti, J.K.; Ngutu, M.; Kimani, W.W.; Anyona, D.N.; Nyamongo, I.K.; Bukachi, S.A.; The Kenya Agricultural Livestock Research Organization ; University of Nairobi ; The Co-operative University of KenyaSmall ruminant production facets like decision-making, ownership, labour allocation, access to- and control over assets are gendered. This study investigates intra-household gender dynamics and practices around sheep and goat production among smallholder farmers in South East region of Kenya. A quantitative study was conducted on 358 dual-headed (married) households to generate gender-disaggregated data on ownership, decision-making and labour allocation around small ruminant production. Qualitative data was collected through focused group discussions to bring out the community perspectives. From the findings, the average number of small ruminants owned by the households as reported by men was slightly higher than women. The average number of small ruminants solely owned by men was significantly higher than by women. Men reported a relatively higher number of jointly owned small ruminants compared to women. More women than men reported that they could give as a gift, sell-off and slaughter jointly owned small ruminants without consulting their spouses. Small ruminants were considered the most important livestock asset in supporting a household’s livelihood by relatively more women than men. Men had more decision-making autonomy over jointly owned small ruminants compared to women. Production tasks around small ruminants such as feeding, watering, selling milk and cleaning housing structures were mostly performed by the women. Qualitative data identified men as the de facto owners of small ruminants with a higher power position in making the important production decisions. The study offers three implications on the design of livestock interventions to empower women, the interventions should ensure that; 1) women are not just owners of livestock assets but also share power and decision-making rights in all aspects of production, 2) production labour is shared equitably between men and women and, 3) women access benefits from livestock production even when animals are owned by men.Item Factors Related to Farmers’ Acceptance of Improved Technologies: A Case Study of Small-Scale Sugar Cane Farmers in Kakamega County, Kenya(International Journal of Agriculture and Technology, 2022-11-01) Thuo, C.M.; Ombati, J.M.; Nkurumwa, A.O.; Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization ; Egerton UniversityImprovement of agricultural technologies has been a global focus, aimed at enhancing agricultural productivity for economic growth and improved livelihood. Through research, many agricultural technologies, loaded with potential benefits have been produced but their acceptance by the intended users has been a global challenge. This calls for need to develop effective mechanism to enhance technology acceptance so that their potential benefits may be realised. This study focused on these phenomena through establishment of various factors related to acceptance of improved sugar cane varieties among small-scale sugar cane farmers in Kakamega County. Understanding of these factors was critical, as it would pin point critical conditions that would facillitate wider acceptance of improved technologies by the targeted users. The study was built on Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT); and the theory of Diffusion of Innovations (DOI). A Cross-Sectional Survey research design was used. The target population was 137,355 sugar cane farmers from Kakamega County, from which a sample of 384 farmers was randomly selected. Questionnaires were used to collect data. Statistical analysis was done using chi-square at 0.05 significance level. The study findings established significant relationships between gender, age, education, land ownership, experience in farming, source of income, sugar cane varietal attributes, variety choice, seed sources, availability of advisory services and marketing of sugar cane, with farmers’ acceptance of improved varieties. Addressing these factors is of great importance to technology developers and promoters as they would facilitate acceptance of the improved technologies produced by farmers. The study recommended extension service providers and sugar millers to provide farmers with adequate information on improved sugar cane varieties, required facilitating resources and supportive services in effort to enhance production of these varieties by farmers.Item Sexual and Gender Minorities in Agricultural Research: The Hidden Mirror(INDERSCIENCE Online, 2021) Bett, B.; Alver, J.; O’Keefe, G.; Global Program, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research ; University of Canberra ; Outreach and Capacity Building, Australian Centre for International Agricultural ResearchThis paper highlights the invisibility of sexual and gender minorities (SGMs) within agricultural research. Through a review of the literature, the authors posit that the majority of gender in agriculture research focuses on binary gender identities, with little space for gender diverse expressions or sexuality outside heteronormative frameworks of the 'family'. Through these (binary) narratives, researchers work to identify power imbalances between women and men, with a view to 'empowerment', and more recently, developing understandings of 'masculinity'. Looking outside agriculture, gender researchers are beginning to investigate diverse sexual orientations and gender identities. Contemporary research is finding through investigation of power and access within societies that SGM groups often have less access to resources, and voice, with development and research interventions almost always overlooking their diverse roles in society and specific needs. Given the pivotal role of gender research in agriculture uncovering inequalities in power and access between men and women, and the resultant impacts on food security, nutrition and production, this framework should be extended to include vulnerable groups such as SGM. The paper presents an opportunity to discuss the integration of SGM in agricultural research, to broaden our theoretical and methodological approaches.Item Economic Impact of DroughtTego Hybrid Maize in Kenya(Journal of Development and Agricultural Economics, 2021-07-31) Kyalo, D.W.; Macharia, I.; Marechera, G.; Muinga, G.; Mugo, S.; Rotich, R.; Oniango, R.; Karanja, J.; African Agricultural Technology Foundation (AATF) ; Kenyatta University ; Rural Outreach Program (ROP) ; Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO)This paper utilizes the Economic Surplus Model (ESM) to provide an ex-post evaluation of the economic impact of drought tolerant hybrid maize technology in Kenya. Results indicate that the adoption of DroughtTEGO ® varieties will generate economic benefit to producers with a net present value of US$ 2.1 billion over a 20-year period. These benefits are sustainable when adoption levels remain above 32% and yield advantage at least 21% over the commercial hybrids. These results present a compelling reason for investing in development, deployment and upscaling of the technology to mitigate the effects of drought among maize producers in Africa.Item Consumer Intentions to Buy Nutrient-Rich Precooked Bean Snacks: Does Sensory Evaluation Matter?(African Scholarly Science Communications Trust, 2021-06-25) Lutomia, C.K.; Karanja, D.; Nchanji, E.B.; Induli, I.; Mutuku, R.; Gichangi, A.; Gichangi, A.; Birachi, E.; Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Institute ; International Center for Tropical Agriculture ; Bioversity International ; Sayari foods-Smart Logistics SolutionPrecooked bean products have the potential of bridging the common bean demand and consumption gap in Kenya. However, sensory evaluation of novel precooked processed products has been inadequate in determining acceptability. This study assessed the sensory evaluation of precooked bean snacks by 269 rural consumers in Machakos County of Kenya. Descriptive results indicated that less than one-quarter (22%) of the consumers were aware of the precooked bean products. The low awareness is a disconnect from the expectations that farming households were probably going to be aware of processed bean products because of their participation in bean value chain. Sensory evaluation showed that 75% of the consumers evaluated the freshness of the bean snacks positively, with about 90% and 63% of them positively assessing the taste of the precooked bean snacks branded Keroma Delicious and Keroma Fruity, respectively. The taste evaluation of Keroma Fruity brand significantly differed depending on age and level of education of the consumer. Similarly, the taste of Keroma Delicious brand also significantly differed by age and educational attainment of consumers. Furthermore, while consumers liked the taste parameters of the products, less than half of them liked the beany flavour of the two products. Results from the binary logit regression model indicated that freshness, sourness, and flavour positively and significantly predicted the probability of future purchases of Keroma Fruity bean snack brands. Consumer intentions to buy Keroma Delicious brand were positively predicted by flavour and marginally by sweetness. To accelerate the consumption of precooked bean products, product development and marketing strategies should recognise the role of sensory attributes in driving acceptability of the bean snacks, deploy processing technologies that retain and enhance sensory attributes, create awareness of the products, and segment the market from a gender lens in order to satisfy the diverse consumer needs and preferences.Item Deconstructing Leisure Time and Workload: Case of Women Bean Producers in Kenya(Agriculture & Food Security, 2021-05-07) Nchanji, E.B.; Mutua, M.; Odhiambo, C.; Nchanji, Y.K.; Karanja, D.; International Center for Tropical Agriculture ; International Center for Tropical Agriculture ; University of Eastern Finland ; Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research OrganisationBackground. The notion of leisure became pronounced more than 20 years ago when women who worked on or out of the farm came home to a “second shift,” which entailed domestic work and childcare. This gap continues today not only between men and women but also among women and men. Women's challenges in terms of their leisure arise out of or are shaped by social norms and different life contexts. Method. The Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) was conducted to understand women's empowerment and disempowerment status in agricultural activities in five counties in Kenya in 2017. In 2019, focus group discussions were carried out in two of the five counties to understand how men and women farmers define leisure and assess the leisure gap and its effect on women's farm and household activities. We were also interested in understanding how men's and women's workload affects leisure and other productive economic activities, resulting in empowerment and how women’s unpaid work contributes to income poverty. Result. The WEAI showed that 28% of disempowerment (5DE) in women farmers is due to lack of time for leisure activities and 18% from being overworked. This means that the time indicator accounts for 46% of disempowerment in Kenyan women bean farmers. Men in Bomet and Narok spent more time than women in raising large livestock and leisure. Women in Bomet spent more time than men in cooking and domestic work (fetching water and collecting fuelwood), while men in Bomet spent more time than women in managing their businesses. Conclusion. Work overload is a constraining factor to women's empowerment in bean production and agricultural productivity. What is considered leisure for men and women is embedded in society’s social fabrics, and it is contextual. This paper highlights instances where leisure provides a way for women to embody and/or resist the discourses of gender roles in the bean value chain and households to enhance food security and health.Item Effect of Use of Tacit Knowledge Transfer Techniques on Organizational Performance of Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization Researchers(Asian Journal of Agricultural Extension, Economics & Sociology, 2022-07-30) Nderema, H.W.; Njeru, L.K.; Chimoita, E.L.; University of NairobiTacit knowledge is key in managing the performance of agricultural research organizations. This study analyzed the adequacy of tacit knowledge transfer techniques, how tacit knowledge transfer enables achievement of performance indicators of Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), and the nature of association between tacit knowledge transfer and researchers' performance. The study adopted a descriptive survey research design, used cluster sampling and a semi-structured questionnaire to collect data from 191 respondents in KALRO research centers. Data were analyzed using the Likert scale and Chi-square in Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20. Collaborative research, workshops and seminars are the most adequate techniques for transferring tacit knowledge among agricultural researchers and enhancing their performance. Cognitive Self-Motivation, collective and local tacit knowledge are the most useful types of tacit knowledge in enhancing agricultural researchers' performance. Management of agricultural research projects and writing of research fund-winning proposals were the performance indicators that researchers were most enabled to attain by tacit knowledge. Chi-square showed that there was significant association between the types of tacit knowledge and performance of researchers. In conclusion, use of tacit knowledge transfer techniques enables researchers to achieve their organization’s performance indicators and a significant positive association exists between tacit knowledge and researchers’ performance. KALRO needs to encourage more use of the most employed techniques in management of agricultural research projects and writing of research fund winning proposals through workshops, seminars and its knowledge management policy.Item Characterization of Indigenous Chicken Production and Related Constraints: Insights from Smallholder Households in Rural Kenya(Elsevier B.V., 2023-07) Anyona, D.N.; Musyoka, M.M.; Ogolla, K.O.; Chemuliti, J.K.; Nyamongo, I.K.; Bukachi, S.A.; University of Nairobi ; Kenya Agricultural & Livestock Research Organization ; The Co-operative University of KenyaIndigenous chickens (IC) contribute significantly to nutrition and socioeconomic wellbeing of rural households. However, despite their potential, production remains low. Attempts to improve IC production among smallholder farmers in Makueni county, Eastern Kenya have achieved little success due to a variety of constraints. This paper explores IC production characteristics and compares the ranks assigned to production and marketing constraints across geographic regions and in male and female-headed households. A descriptive quantitative household survey of 1217 respondents drawn from IC rearing households was conducted and the results integrated with qualitative findings from 22 informants. Results showed an average flock size of 14.9 ± 15.94 IC per household, with female- headed households having relatively fewer chicken than male-headed households. However, relatively more chicken (15.9 ± 18.9) were lost per household during the last disease outbreak compared to the number kept at the time of study. Production system was largely free-range in nature with minimal provision of supplementary feeds. Disease (1.13±0.5), predation (3.16±1.9) and low market prices (3.89±1.9) were three top ranked (Mean Rank±SD) constraints in that order. Lack of capital, high cost of inputs, poor access to extension services and poor access to knowledge ranked significantly higher in female-headed households and in remote areas, while low market price ranked higher in male-headed households. Failure to agree on the selling price was the major constraint to marketing, while rejection of IC due to diseases, inability to agree on selling price and rejection due to size ranked higher in female-headed households compared to male-headed households. Interventions modeled towards improving biosecurity measures to curb diseases, financial empowerment and facilitating access to markets for smallholder farmers should be prioritized.Item An Evaluation of Nutrition, Culinary, and Production Interventions Using African Indigenous Vegetables on Nutrition Security Among Smallholder Farmers in Western Kenya(Frontiers, 2023-05-15) Merchant, E.V.; Odendo, M.; Maiyo, N.; Govindasamy, R.; Morin, X.K.; Simon, J.E.; Hoffman, D.J.Introduction. Nutrition security continues to worsen in sub-Saharan Africa. Current research is limited on how seasonality may influence the impact of nutrition, culinary, and production interventions on food security, diet quality, and consumption of African Indigenous Vegetables (AIV); a culturally accepted source of micro-and-macronutrients that are easily produced due to their adaptation to the local environment. The objective of this study was to evaluate the programmatic impact of AIV interventions on nutrition security among smallholder farmers. Methods. In a randomized control trial, five target counties in Western Kenya were randomly assigned to one of four treatments: (1) control; (2) production intervention (PI); (3) nutrition and culinary intervention (NCI); and (4) NCI and PI (NCI/PI). After the counties were randomly assigned to a treatment, 503 smallholder farmers (18–65 years) were selected from participatory farmer groups. The PI consisted of five agricultural production modules delivered between 2016 and 2019. The NCI was delivered twice: (1) household nutrition education (2017) and (2) community culinary training (2019). The NCI/PI included communities receiving both interventions at these time periods. Baseline and endline surveys were administered to all participants once in October 2016 (harvest season) and to all available participants (n = 250) once in June to July 2019 (dry season), respectively. The impact evaluation was analyzed by Household Hunger Scale (HHS), Women’s Dietary Diversity Score (WDDS), AIV consumption frequency, and AIV market availability. Statistical tests included descriptive statistics (means and frequencies), paired t-test, McNemar’s test, Wilcoxon Signed-Rank test, ANOVA test with Tukey post hoc, and χ2 test. Open-ended questions were aggregated, and responses were selected based on relevancy and thoroughness of the response to provide context to the quantitative data. A value of p < 0.05 was used to denote statistical significance. Results. There was an overall decrease in WDDS, HHS, and consumption frequency between baseline and endline attributed to seasonal differences. Despite this, post-intervention, households that received NCI/PI had a higher WDDS relative to the control: WDDS 5.1 ± 1.8 vs. 4.2 ± 1.5, p = 0.035. In addition, between baseline and endline, there was an overall increase in the percentage of respondents that reported an adequate supply of key AIVs, particularly for households that received PI. Furthermore, seasonal effects caused a reported shift in the primary location for purchasing AIVs from the village to the town market. There was no reported difference in HHS. While “diet awareness” significantly influenced diet quality among the NCI treatment group, “production” was reported to have the greatest influence on diet quality among all intervention groups. Discussion. The findings revealed that coupled nutrition, culinary, and production interventions could create a protective effect against seasonal fluctuations in the availability and affordability of AIV as evidenced by a higher WDDs. Conclusion and Recommendations: These findings suggest that future programming and policy should focus on promoting the availability, accessibility, acceptability, and affordability of improved agronomic practices and germplasm for both smallholder farmers with particular emphasis on AIV varieties that contain high levels of micro-and macronutrients, improved agronomic characteristics (e.g., delayed flowering, multiple harvests, higher yields, and disease resistance), and are aligned with the communities’ cultural preferences. In addition, agricultural training and extension services should incorporate nutrition and culinary interventions that emphasize the importance of farmers prioritizing harvests for their household consumption.Item Does Intervention in African Indigenous Vegetables Value Chain Improve Production and Welfare Outcomes? Evidence from Western Kenya(Journal of Agriculture Science & Technology, 2023) Odendo, M.; Ndinya, C.; Onyango, E.; Wanyama, J.; Akollo, S.; Makete, N.; Kweyu, S.; Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) Kakamega & Kitale ; Anglican Development Services (ADS) ; AGROKenyaAfrican Indigenous Vegetables (AIVs) are increasingly recognized as essential for sustainable dietary diversification in the predominantly cereal based staple diets. The AIVs also provide employment opportunities and generate income for the rural populations. Many initiatives by researchers and development agencies have promoted the AIVs value chains in Kenya. However, little evidence exists on impact of the initiatives on farm households. Several studies have examined impact of agricultural interventions based on observational data. The findings from such studies are likely to be influenced by unobserved attributes, resulting in a biased estimation of causal relationships between interventions and impacts. We conducted a cluster- randomized controlled trial to estimate the unbiased impacts of a multifaceted intervention that focused on production, consumption nutrition behavior change communication, and linking farmers to markets in selected AIV value chains (cowpea, spider plant, amaranth, nightshade, and slender leaf) in western Kenya. Using two waves of household panel data (2018 and 2021), we evaluated the impacts of the intervention on land area allocation to AIVs, total leaf production, AIVs income, and household dietary diversity Score (HDDS). The empirical estimation using descriptive statistics and analysis of covariance revealed that households that were exposed to the intervention significantly increased land area under AIVs by 38% (p < 0.01) and total leaf production by 46% (p < 0.05). At end line, the spider plant had the highest percentage increase (60%) in land area compared to the control group. However, there is no evidence of whether or not the intervention had an impact on AIVs income and HDDS. The study concludes that the hypothesis that the intervention was to have significant impact on AIV production, nutrition security and income had mixed results. We recommend that similar interventions include components to integrate the capacity of households to adapt to risks such as the COVID-19 pandemic and climate change. Further cost-benefit analysis is required for informed resource allocation. Designing and implementing policies that promote household access to input and output markets are likely to improve the performance of the AIV value chains and contribute to income and nutrition.Item Assessing the Demand for Improved Cook Stoves among Low Income Households in Kenya: Case of Baringo and West Pokot Counties(Scientific Research Publishing Inc., 2022-08-29) Kisiangani, B.; Okoti, M.; Mutembei, H.; Wamalwa, P.; Mandila, B.; Egerton University ; Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization ; University of Nairobi ; University of KabiangaIn recent years, clean and improved cooking solutions have significantly evolved globally, generating an attractive market opportunity for enterprises engaging in the provision of innovative cooking appliances, fuels, and financing to speed uptake of the disseminated technologies. Improved Cook stoves (ICS) have been widely touted for their potential to deliver triple wing benefits of improved agricultural productivity, enhanced household health and time savings through reduced scrimmage in sourcing for biomass fuel, and sustainability through reduced local deforestation, further reducing black carbon emissions. Despite decades of promotion, diffusion of ICS has continued to remain slow. This project aimed at investigating the factors that hinder the uptake of ICS in some selected poor villages from Baringo and West Pokot Counties in Kenya, East Africa. Data was collected from 2918 households across 12 villages and analyzed statistically. On average, households spent approximately KES 2149 on fuel per month, covered 2.15 km and spent around 1.5 hours collecting/getting their primary cooking fuel. Majority of the consumers, 94% expressed willingness to pay (WTP) for an ideal cookstove (one that emits less smoke, saves fuel, safe during cooking, easy to light, and that could cook fast). A majority of the consumers (46.5%) preferred to acquire ICSs through equal monthly installments while 40.47% preferred to pay cash and the rest opted for the “pay-to-use” model and whenever cash was available. From the binary Probit model, consumers’ WTP for the ICSs was positively influenced by age and level of education of the head of the family, size of the family, number of children under five years, distance to the source of fuel, and the desire to use and own an ICS. Policies that are aimed at maximizing cook stove effectiveness and uptake among the poor in the target counties and Kenya at large was recommended.Item Barriers and Facilitators in Preparation and Consumption of African Indigenous Vegetables: A Qualitative Exploration from Kenya(Frontiers, 2022-03-21) Merchant, E.V.; Odendo, M.; Ndinya, C.; Nyabinda, N.; Maiyo, N.; Downs, S.; Hoffman, D.J.; Simon, J.E.; Rutgers University ; Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization - Kakamega ; Academic Model Providing Access to HealthCare ; Rutgers School of Public HealthMalnutrition and food security continue to be major concerns in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). In Western Kenya, it is estimated that the double burden of malnutrition impacts 19% of adults and 13–17% of households. One potential solution to help address the concern is increased consumption of nutrient-dense African Indigenous Vegetables (AIVs). The objectives of this study were to: (i) document current methods used for preparation and consumption of AIVs; (ii) identify barriers and facilitators of AIVs consumption and preparation; and (iii) identify a package of interventions to increase the consumption of AIVs to promote healthy diets. This study used qualitative data collected from 145 individual farmers (78 female and 67 male) in 14 focus group discussions (FGDs) using a semi-structured survey instrument. Most farmers reported that they prepared AIVs using the traditional method of boiling and/or pan-cooking with oil, tomato, and onion. However, there were large discrepancies between reported cooking times, with some as little as 1–5 min and others as long as 2 h. This is of importance as longer cooking times may decrease the overall nutritional quality of the final dish. In addition, there were seasonal differences in the reported barriers and facilitators relative to the preparation and consumption of AIVs implying that the barriers are situational and could be modified through context-specific interventions delivered seasonally to help mitigate such barriers. Key barriers were lack of availability and limited affordability, due to an increase cost, of AIVs during the dry season, poor taste and monotonous diets, and perceived negative health outcomes (e.g., ulcers, skin rashes). Key facilitators included availability and affordability during peak-season and particularly when self-produced, ease of preparation, and beneficial health attributes (e.g., build blood, contains vitamins and minerals). To promote healthy diets within at risk-populations in Western Kenya, the findings suggest several interventions to promote the preparation and consumption of AIVs. These include improved household production to subsequently improve affordability and availability of AIVs, improved cooking methods and recipes that excite the family members to consume these dishes with AIVs, and the promotion of the beneficial heath attributes of AIVs while actively dispelling any perceived negative health consequences of their consumption.Item Economic Evaluation and Socioeconomic Drivers Influencing Farmers’ Perceptions on Benefits of Using Organic Inputs Technologies in Upper Eastern Kenya(Elsevier B.V., 2021-09-06) Mwaura, G.G.; Kiboi, M.N.; Mugwe, J.N.; Nicolay, G.; Bett, E.K.; Muriuki, A.; Musafiri, C.M.; Ngetich, F.K.; Kenyatta University ; University of Embu ; Cortile Scientific Company Ltd ; Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) ; Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization ; Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University of Science and Technology (JOOUST)Declining soil fertility in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is a significant constraint towards increasing agricultural productivity. Soil fertility decline coupled with rapid population growth and low use of organic soil fertility technologies has threatened the population’s economic status that lives in the rural area and relies on rain-fed agriculture. We conducted a cross-sectional household survey in the Central Highlands of Kenya (Gatanga and Meru South sub-counties) to determine farmers’ perception of the benefits of using organic resources technologies, socioeconomic drivers influencing their perceptions, and financial returns from the technologies. The selected technologies were; sole animal manure and a combination of animal manure with inorganic fertilizer. We based the benefits of using the selected soil fertility management technologies on four variables; potential to improve soil fertility, crop yields, profitability, and labor requirement. The majority of the farmers strongly agreed that using the selected technologies improved soil fertility, crop yields and were profitable. On the contrary, they agreed it was labor-intensive. Gender of the household head, household size, Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU), access to external labor, access to credit, total land cultivated, age, and years of farming experience were the socioeconomic drivers that significantly influenced farmers’ perception of the use of sole animal manure and animal manure combined with inorganic fertilizer. Results showed that animal manure had the highest financial returns of US$ 440.74 in Gatanga, while in Meru South, animal manure combined with inorganic fertilizer had the highest returns of US$ 456.25. The study highlights that the use of sole animal manure and animal manure combined with inorganic fertilizer is perceived positively by the smallholder farmers and has better financial returns than sole inorganic fertilizer. Thus, the use of selected organic resource technologies should be encouraged by creating more awareness through farmers’ training programs.
