Human Health
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Item Application of infectomics in virus management(Wageningen University, 2013) Kariithi, H.M.African trypanosomosis is a fatal zoonotic disease transmitted by tsetse flies (Diptera; Glossinidae); blood-sucking insects found only in sub-Saharan Africa. Two forms of trypanosomoses occur: the animal African trypanosomosis (AAT; nagana), and the human African trypanosomosis (HAT; sleeping sickness). Since there are no effective vaccines against trypanosomosis, tsetse fly eradication is the most effective disease control method. Tsetse flies can be effectively eradicated by the sterile insect technique (SIT), which is applied in an area-wide integrated pest management approach. SIT is an environmentally benign method with a long and solid record of accomplishments. SIT requires large-scale production of sexually sterilized male flies (by exposure to a precise and specific dose of ionizing radiation, usually from a 60(0 or 137(e source), which are sequentially released into a target wild insect population to out-compete wild type males in inseminating wild virgin females. Once inseminated by sterile males, the virgin females do not produce viable progeny flies. Importantly, these females do not typically re-mate. Ultimately, the target wild insect population can decrease to extinction. However, tsetse SIT programs are faced with a unique problem: laboratory colonies of many tsetse species are infected by the Glossina pallidipes salivary gland hypertrophy virus (GpSGHV; family Hytrosaviridae). GpSGHV-infected flies have male aspermia or oligospermia, underdeveloped female ovarioles, sterility, salivary gland hypertrophy syndrome (SGH), distorted sex ratios, and reduced insemination rates. Without proper management, symptomatic GpSGHV infections characterized by SGH symptoms) can cause collapse of Glossina colonies. To ensure colony productivity and survival. GpSGHV management strategies are required. This will ensure a sustained supply of sterile males for SIT programs. The aim of this PhD research was to investigate the functional and structural genomics and proteomics (infectomics) of GpSGHV as a prerequisite to development of rationally designed viral control strategies. A series of experiments were designed to: (i) investigate epidemiology and diversity of GpSGHV; (ii) identify GpSGHV proteome and how viral and host proteins contribute to the pathobiology of the virus; and (iii) investigate the interplay between GpSGHV, the microbiome and the host, and how these interactions influence the outcomes of viral infections. By relating GpSGHV and host infectomics data, cost-effective viral management strategies were developed. This resulted in significant reduction of GpSGHV loads and elimination of SGH from laboratory colonies of G. pallidipes.Item The Local Reaction in Man at the Site of Infection with Trypanosoma Rhodesiense(1957) Fairbairn, H.; Godfrey, D.G.; West Africa Institute of Trypanosomiasis ResearchA problem of great importance in trypanosomiasis is what happens to the metacyclic trypanosomes when they are injected into a mammal by the bite of an infected tsetse-fly. Gordon and Willett (1956) infected guinea-pigs by the bites of tsetse-flies cyclically infected with Trypanosoma rhodesiense. By the subinoculation of heart blood into rats they showed that the blood of the guinea-pigs was infective 5 minutes, 45 minutes, 4! hours and 24 hours after the infective bite. In a fresh preparation made from the site of the bite within five minutes of its infliction, a single trypanosome was seen; and ground-up tissue, removed from the bitten area within 45 minutes of the infective feed, successfully infected white rats on two occasions. The only occasion on which they found trypanosomes on sectioning the site of bite was immediately after a fly had probed but not fed. They postulated that in guinea-pigs the majority of the metacyclic forms of T. rhodesiense deposited by the feeding tsetse rapidly migrated or were carried away from the site of the bite; that a proportion of these trypanosomes or their descendants reached the general circulation within a few hours, or sometimes within a few minutes, of the infective bite; and that, once the trypanosomes reached the circulation, they persisted in the blood throughout the incubation-period. Their guinea-pigs, however, still had an incubation-period of 7-10 days before trypanosomes were found microscopically in the blood.Item The Epidemiology of Sleeping Sickness in Samia Location, Kenya.(1968) Wijers, D.J.B.In 1964 a T. rhodesiense sleeping sickness epidemic occurred in Alego Central Nyanza. Here the disease was transmitted by Glossina fuscipes which had left its riverine habitat and had settled in the dense hedges around the homesteads so that the flies had come into very close contact with man and his livestock. The disease was found to have a reservoir in cattle that could harbor the trypanosome for many months without showing any signs of illness. To control the epidemic and to prevent further spread, the Government decided to eradicate all tsetse in Central Nyanza by spraying the bush with insecticides. To prevent re-invasion by the fly from Uganda, all bush was cleared in a barrier zone at the western border of the sprayed area.Item Comparative pathogenicity of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense strains in Swiss white mice and Mastomys natalensis rats(Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, 1927) Muchiri, M.W.; Ndung'u, K.; Kibugu, J.K.; Thuita, J.K.; Gitonga, P.K.; Ngae, G.N.; Mdachi, R.E.; Kagira, J.M.; Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), Biotechnology Research Institute (BioRI), P. O. Box 362, Kikuyu, Кепуа; Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, P.O. Box 62000-00200, Kenya; Kenya Food Crop Research Institute, P. O. Box 30148, Nairobi, KenyaWe evaluated Mastomys natelensis rat as an animal model for Rhodesian sleeping sickness, Parasitaemia, clinical and pathological characteristics induced by T. b. rhodesiense isolates, KETRI 3439, 3622 and 3637 were compared in Mastomys rats and Swiss white mice. Each isolate was intra-peritonially injected in mice and rat groups (n-12) at 1x 10º trypanosomes/0.2 ml. Pre-patent period (PP) range for KETRI 3439 and KETRI 3622-groups was 3-6 days for mice and 4-5 days for rats while for KETRI 3637-infected mice. and rats was 5-9 and 4-12 days, respectively. Pairwise comparison between PP of mice and rats separately infected with either isolate showed no significant difference (p>0.05). The PP's of KETRI 3637-infected mice were significantly (p>0.01) longer than those infected with KETRI 3439 or KETRI 3622, a trend also observed in rats. The second parasitaemic wave was more prominent in mice. Clinical signs included body weakness, dyspnoea, peri-orbital oedema and extreme emaciation which were more common in rats. Survival time for KETRI 3439 and 3622-infected groups was significantly (p<0.05) longer in mice than rats but similar in KETRI 3637-infected groups. Inflammatory lesions were more severe in rats than mice. All mice and KETRI 3622-infected rats had splenomegaly, organ congestion with rats additionally showing prominent lymphadenopathy. KETRI 3439-infected rats showed hemorrhagic pneumonia, enteritis with moderate splenomegaly and lymphadenopathy. KETRI 3637-infected rats had the most severe lesions characterized by prominent splenomegaly, lymphadenopathy, hepatomegaly, enlarged adrenal glands, organ congestion, generalized oedemas, gastroenteritis, pneumonia and brain congestion. KETRI 3637- infected Mastomys is a suitable model for studying pathophysiology of HAT.Item The History of Sleeping Sickness in Yimbo Location (Central Nyanza, Kenya) as Told by the Oldest Inhabitants of the Location(1969) Wijers, D.J.B.; Medical Research Centre, Nairobi"Long ago, before the Europeans came, there lived in Yimbo two mighty Luo clans: the Kanyathuon and the Kajongo. Relations between the two clans werestrained because, when the clans conquered Yimbo, the Kajongo had killed off all the original inhabitants and they blamed the Kanyathuon who had spared the lives of the conquered people and allowed them to live quietly among their conquerors. In the clan war which resulted the Kajongo lost battle after battle, for the Kanyathuon, aided by the men whose lives they had spared, were far too strong for them."Item Royal Entomological Society of London(1963) Mattingly, P.F.The battle against malaria in Africa has resulted in virtual stalemate. Bot sides are currently regrouping their forces. An account will be given of a visit to some parts of the battlefield (East Africa, Zanzibar, Pemba, Madagascar, Mauritius, S. Rhodesia, Congo, Cameroon, Nigeria) and this will be illustrated by the transparencies. Among the factors to be considered are problems of infraspecific taxonomy behavior and general ecology. These will be discussed.Item Some of the Protozoological Problems of African Human Trypanosomiasis(1956) Willet, K.C.; Trypanosomiasis Research Institute SalisburyIt is clearly impossible in the short span of fifteen minutes to cover more than a very small part of the large subject of the protozoology of trypanosome infections and I have therefore so chosen my title as to impose three important limitations: the first that my remarks are restricted to the pathogenic trypanosomes of Africa: the second that I am concerned only with those related to human sleeping sickness, and the third that I make no claim to consider more than a few of the problems which seem to me, personally, to be of importance.Item "Zoonoses in East Africa" May 1956(1956) Willett, K.C.; East African Trypanosomiasis ResearchIN the report of the recent conference in Kampala, Uganda, "Zoonoses in East Africa"" I was quoted as suggesting that Trypanosoma rhodesiense had (developed from Tr. brucei by repeated passages through Glossina pallidipes. My thesis was, in fact, almost the exact opposite of this. I emphasized that all the evidence so far shows that the property of infectivity to man which alone distinguishes Tr. rhodesiense from Tr. brucei is an extremely stable one and that there has never been a known case of interconversion of these two. On the other hand, I pointed out, in any area where Tr. rhodesiense had appeared, either it could be traced to direct introduction by infected human beings from a known source, or the other human infective 'species', Tr. gambiense, had been known to be present in the area for some time.Item Kenya Trypanosomiasis Research Institute Cryobank forHuman and Animal Trypanosome Isolates to SupportResearch: Opportunities and Challenges(Kenya Agriculture Research Institute, 2014) Murilla, G. A.; Kenya Agriculture Research Institute; 1. Kenya Agricultural Research Institute – Trypanosomiasis Research Centre (KARI-TRC), Kikuyu, Kenya, 2.Foundation for Innovative New Diagnostics (FIND), Geneva,Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) is classified in the category of the most neglected tropical diseases. In man, the disease is caused by two tsetse (Glossina spp.)-transmitted trypanosome subspecies: Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, which is responsible for the chronic form of HAT in West and Central Africa, and T. b. rhodesiense, which causes acute disease in eastern and southern Africa. African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT) is caused by various trypanosome species, the major ones being T. vivax, T. congolense, and T. evansi [1].Item Antimicrobial Activity of Selected Indigenous Wild Flora in Kenya against Alternaria Pass/Florae Causing Brown Spot of Passion Fruit(2013) Wafula, J.; Wangai, A.; Omolo, E.; Wanyera, R.; Kamundia, J.; Mwaura, S.; Ministry of Agriculture Kenya Agricultural Research Institute; Egerton Njoro universityAntifungal activities of botanicals have been known since antiquity and used to extend shelf life of foods and treat human and animal diseases. Antifungal activity of heat stable extracts of six botanicals growing wildly in Kenya against Alternaria passiflorae the causal organism of brown spot of passion fruit were evaluated under laboratory condition (in vitro). Heating techniques mimicking the traditional methods were used in the extraction of active compounds. The extracts exhibited various activities against Alternaria passiflora colony growth and sporulation. Warbugia ugandensis, Rosemarinlls officinalis and Urtica massaica were more toxic to Alternaria passiflora than Aloe volkensii, finger euphobia and solanam nigrum which were not significantly different from each other. Solanum nigrum was however relatively more effective in inhibiting sporulation followed by Rosemarinus officinalis and Warbugia ugandensis. Further tests on W. lIgandensis, R. officinalis and S. nigrum using different quantities of the botanicals indicated that the effects were concentration dependent. The fungitoxicity however decreased fast with incubation period. Concentrations >40 g of botanical materials/50 ml of PDA media were more toxic to the fungus. There is need for further studies to identify the active ingredients and best extraction methods as heat is known to destroy some compounds.Item A Report on Four Outbreaks Caused by Two Separate Shipments of Endrin-contaminated Flour(1967) Weeks, D.E.; ARAMCO ( Arabian American Oil Company )This report represents the compilation of information provided by many individuals from different organizations in several different countries. It was only with their fullest co-operation and understanding that this report was made possible and full acknowledgement and appreciation is extended to them. A list of these individuals and organizations is given in the Annex.Item Titres of The Igm Class of Immunoglobulins In Gambian Sleeping Sickness and Other Disease Conditions(1961/1962) Watson, H.J.C.; Chirieleison, G.; Nigerian Institute of Trypanosomiasis Research KadunaThe work of Mattern et al. (1961) and Mattern (1962) has demonstrated that raised levels of the IgM class of immunoglobulins which occur in human trypanosomiasis provide a valuable means for the presumptive diagnosis of the disease. In considering the use of this technique, it is obviously of importance that information should be available on the IgM titres occurring in other pathological conditions which might complicate or confuse its application. This paper describes findings in patients with Gambian trypanosomiasis, both before and after they had been treated, and in a variety of other conditions.Item Human African Trypanosomiasis and Human Immunodeficiency Virus Co-Infection in Western Kenya(2005) Kajejo, O. A.; Matete, G. O.; University of Nairobi KARI (Kenya trypanosomiasis Research Centre Muguga)Objective: To determine possible interaction between infections of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense sleeping sickness and HIV/AIDS in Western Kenya Design: Random selection and testing for HIV infections of serum samples from HAT patients using an indirect single phase enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (EAI-Immunocomb ®II, oragenics) Setting: National Sleeping Sickness Referral Hospital-Alupe. Results: Four (16%) of the HAT serum samples (n=25) were found to be seropositive for HIV type 1 and 2 infections, while an additional four (16%) were sero-positive to HIV type 2 infections alone. In contrast, the patients from the local STD clinic showed that 52 % (n=53) were seropositive for both HIV type 1 and 2 infections. No patient from the STD clinic was seropositive for HIV type 2 alone. Calculated Yates Chi square value of 17.31 (P>O.OOI) indicated a significant increase in HIV type 2 antibodies in T. brucei rhodesiense sleeping sickness patients. Results: Sixteen percent of the HAT serum samples (n=25) were found to be seropositive for HIV type 1 and 2 infections, while an additional 16% were sero-positive to HIV type 2 infections alone. In contrast, the patients from the local STD clinic showed that 52% (n=53) were seropositive for both HIV type 1 and 2 infections. No patient from the STD clinic was seropositive for HIV type 2 alone. Calculated Yates Chi square value of 17.31 (P < 0.001) indicated a significant increase in HIV type 2 antibodies in T. brucei rhodesiense sleeping sickness patients. Conclusion: T. brucei rhodesiense sleeping sickness is an immuno suppressive disease whose patients have shown a higher affinity to HIV type 2 infections more common in central and western Africa. Such patients when treated, appear to recover from HAT but later succumb to full-blown AIDS. It is recommended that CD4+ Tcell numbers and CD4/CD8 T cell ratios be assessed to investigate response to treatment in HIV positive HAT patients.Item Paediatric sleeping sickness in Kenya: A case report(2004) Matete, G. O.; Kisivuli, J. A.; Kenya Trypanosomiasis Research Institute; Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (Trypanosomiasis Research centre Muguga ) Alupe sub District HospitalSleeping sickness is often considered a disease of adults rather than children due to their reduced exposure to the vector. Presumptive diagnosis of sleeping sickness was however difficult since the clinical signs observed were non-specific. This makes. Clinical diagnosis difficult. Often the disease in children masquerades as a pulmonary infection that is undetectable on x-ray or auscultation. A male child aged two years and eight months was diagnosed with the disease in western Kenya. The patient presented with severe respiratory distress, hepatosplenomegay and neurological symptoms. The disease transmission was associated with the socio-cultural habit of placing children under bushes whilst farming. The implications of delayed diagnosis on response to treatment are discussed.Item Urbanization and the Epidemiology of Mosquito-Borne Disease(1971) GORDON, S.; Microbiology Research Establishment Portan salisburyMan is a major factor in the rapid environmental changes characteristic of the twentieth century. Deliberate changes in the environment may be made by man for a number of reasons: more food, hydroelectric power, more living continuing cycle of environmental modification. Associated with the growth of urban centres is industry, which, because it attracts large labour forces, increases the pressure for more living facilities and the demand for further agricultural extension, so contributing to a cycle of environmental change. If man is considered as a major ecological factor, urbanization is the major feature of the present-day dynamic environment.Item Chemotherapy of African Trypanosomiasis(1962) Robertson, D.H.H; EATRO (East African Trypanosomiasis Research Organization Tororo Uganda)BEFORE deciding which drug to luse in any patient with trypanosomiasis it is necessary to determine by examination of the cerebrospinal fluid (e.S.F.) whether the central nervous system is involved. The Sicard-Cantaloube method for estimating C.S.F. protein is convenient for use in the field (Willett, 1955): if a sample contains more than 25 mg. of protein per 100 mI., more than 5 leucocytes per c.mm., or if trypanosomes are found during the examination of the C.S.F. in the Fuchs-Rosenthal cytometer, then the patient will require mel B. Pentamidine or suramin should only be used during the early stage of the disease before central nervous system invasion has occurred.Item A Trial of Mel Win the Treatment of Trypanosoma Rhodesiense Sleeping Sickness(1963) Robertson D.H.H; East African Trypanosomiasis Research Organization Tororo UgandaMel W, a water-soluble analogue of melarsoprol, gave promising initial results in the treatment of T. gambiense sleeping sickness. These authors considered Mel W to be less toxic than melarsoprol and since it could also be given by intramuscular (1M) injection, it was thought to have distinct advantages. This paper presents the results of the treatment with Mel W in 17 cases of T. rhodesiense meningo-encephalitis. Large doses of Mel W were tried in a patient (Case No. 261) infected with a melarsoprol-resistant strain of T. rhodesiense.Item The Treatment of Sleeping Sickness (Mainly Due To Trypanosoma Rhodesiense) With Melarsoprol(1963) Robertson, D.H.H.; East African Trypanosomiasis Research Organization Tororo UgandaMelarsoprol was found to be effective in the treatment of T. gambiense meningo-encephalitis later its value was demonstrated in patients with tryparsamide-resistant T. gambiense infections as well as in those with T. rhodesiense meningo-encephalitis who were always incurable before the advent of melarsoprol. Earlier trials with melarsoprol emphasized its toxicity and there was a high mortality (more than 10 per cent.) associated with its use.Item Human Trypanosomiasis in South-East Uganda(1963) Robertson, D.H.H. Baker, J. R. ; East African Trypanosomias Research Tororo UgandaDuring the past two decades there has been an increase in the incidence and spread of sleeping-sickness due to Trypanosoma rhodesiense throughout the north-eastern shore area of Lake Victoria; this increase has been associated with heightened fishing activity and increasing and irregular settlement of the tsetse-fly belt of south-east Uganda. The author describes a number of epidemiological factors affecting the occurrence of the disease among fishermen, placing emphasi~ on the correct development of the local fishing industry to avoid, on the one hand, depleting the fish population and, on the other, increasing the incidence of sleeping-sickness. Sociological factors which militate against the development of settlement in Glossinainfested areas of south-east Uganda are also described and plans for future settlement in that area are discussed.Item The Pathology of African Trypanosomiasis.(1970) GOODWIN, L. G.; Nutfield Institute Comparative Medicine, the zoological society of London Regents Park LondonI must, at the beginning of this paper, acknowledge the immensely valuable support given to work on all aspects of trypanosomiasis by the British Ministry of Overseas Development. From colonial times, the authorities have recognized the threat of this dangerous disease to man and his domestic animals, and also the fact that its study involves the disciplines of human medicine, veterinary medicine, mammalogy and entomology in equal measures. The Ministry has continued to initiate and to support research projects in Britain and overseas and it holds seminars at which progress is assessed. One of its latest achievements has been to sponsor a book, The African Trypanosomiases edited by Colonel H. W. MULLIGAN and Mr. W. H. POTTS (1970), into which the accumulated field and laboratory experience of British workers in all aspects of trypanosomasis has been distilled. It is on the brink of publication and contains so much wisdom that it is certain to become an 'instant' classic. It would therefore seem somewhat pretentious for me to present a paper, at this particular time, on any aspect of the disease. But trypanosomiasis has not been considered by a full Meeting of this Society for several years, and I hope that this evening's discussion may serve as an aperitif to whet your appetites for what is to come.
